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  • Osnabrück County, Lower Saxony (Present-Day in Germany)
    Sep, 9
    Roman Empire

    Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

    Osnabrück County, Lower Saxony (Present-Day in Germany)
    Sep, 9

    The Illyrian tribes revolted and had to be crushed, and three full legions under the command of Publius Quinctilius Varus were ambushed and destroyed at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9 by Germanic tribes led by Arminius.




  • Moguntiacum, Germania Superior (Present-Day Mainz, Germany)
    Thursday Mar 19, 235
    Roman Empire

    Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander died

    Moguntiacum, Germania Superior (Present-Day Mainz, Germany)
    Thursday Mar 19, 235

    His prosecution of the war against a German invasion of Gaul led to his overthrow by the troops he was leading, whose regard the twenty-seven-year-old had lost during the campaign. Alexander was forced to face his German enemies in the early months of 235. By the time he and his mother arrived, the situation had settled, and so his mother convinced him that to avoid violence, trying to bribe the German army to surrender was the more sensible course of action. According to historians, it was this tactic combined with insubordination from his own men that destroyed his reputation and popularity. Alexander was thus assassinated together with his mother in a mutiny of the Legio XXII Primigenia at Moguntiacum (Mainz) while at a meeting with his generals. These assassinations secured the throne for Maximinus. He died after a rule of 13 years.




  • (Present Day France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switzerland, and parts of Northern Italy, Netherlands, and Germany)
    5th Century
    Holy Roman Empire

    Roman power in Gaul declined

    (Present Day France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switzerland, and parts of Northern Italy, Netherlands, and Germany)
    5th Century

    As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control. In the late 5th and early 6th centuries, the Merovingians, under Clovis I and his successors, consolidated Frankish tribes and extended hegemony over others to gain control of northern Gaul and the middle Rhine river valley region.




  • Aachen, Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    794
    Holy Roman Empire

    The Holy Roman Empire capital

    Aachen, Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    794

    The Holy Roman Empire never had a single permanent/fixed capital city. Usually, the Holy Roman Emperor ruled from a place of his own choice. This was called an imperial seat. Seats of the Holy Roman Emperor included: Aachen (from 794), Palermo (1220–1254), Munich (1328–1347 and 1744–1745), Prague (1355–1437 and 1576–1611), Brussels (1516–1556), Vienna (1438–1576, 1611–1740 and 1745–1806) and Frankfurt am Main (1742–1744) among other cities.




  • Holy Roman Empire
    Monday Dec 25, 800
    Holy Roman Empire

    Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor

    Holy Roman Empire
    Monday Dec 25, 800

    On Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the West for the first time in over three centuries.




  • Aachen, Francia (Present Day Germany)
    Sunday Mar 9, 814
    11:34:00 PM
    Holy Roman Empire

    Charlemagne died

    Aachen, Francia (Present Day Germany)
    Sunday Mar 9, 814
    11:34:00 PM

    After Charlemagne died in 814, the imperial crown passed to his son, Louis the Pious.




  • Ingelheim (Present Day in Germany)
    Wednesday Jun 20, 840
    Holy Roman Empire

    Louis the Pious death

    Ingelheim (Present Day in Germany)
    Wednesday Jun 20, 840

    Upon Louis (Louis the Pious)' death in 840, it passed to his son Lothair, who had been his co-ruler.


  • (Present Day Frankfurt, Germany)
    911
    Holy Roman Empire

    King Louis the Child death

    (Present Day Frankfurt, Germany)
    911

    Around 900, autonomous stem duchies (Franconia, Bavaria, Swabia, Saxony, and Lotharingia) reemerged in East Francia. After the Carolingian king Louis the Child died without issue in 911, East Francia did not turn to the Carolingian ruler of West Francia to take over the realm but instead elected one of the dukes, Conrad of Franconia (Conard I of Germany), as Rex Francorum Orientalium.


  • East Francia (Present Day Germany)
    Wednesday May 24, 919
    Holy Roman Empire

    Henry the Fowler

    East Francia (Present Day Germany)
    Wednesday May 24, 919

    On his deathbed, Conrad of Franconia yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony (r. 919–36), who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919.


  • (Present Day Central Germany)
    Sunday Mar 15, 933
    Holy Roman Empire

    Battle of Riade

    (Present Day Central Germany)
    Sunday Mar 15, 933

    Henry (Henry the Fowler) reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade. The Battle of Riade or Battle of Merseburg was fought between the troops of East Francia under King Henry I and the Magyars at an unidentified location in northern Thuringia along the river Unstrut on 15 March 933. The battle was precipitated by the decision of the Synod of Erfurt to stop paying an annual tribute to the Magyars in 932.


  • Aachen, East Francia
    Monday Jul 2, 936
    Holy Roman Empire

    Otto I king of Aachen (Germany (East Francia))

    Aachen, East Francia
    Monday Jul 2, 936

    Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing (or Ottonian) dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowler's death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936. He overcame a series of revolts from a younger brother and from several dukes. After that, the king managed to control the appointment of dukes and often also employed bishops in administrative affairs.


  • Lechfeld plain, near Augsburg, Bavaria
    Sunday Aug 10, 955
    Holy Roman Empire

    Battle of Lechfeld

    Lechfeld plain, near Augsburg, Bavaria
    Sunday Aug 10, 955

    In 955, Otto won a decisive victory over the Magyars (Hungarians) in the Battle of Lechfeld. The Battle of Lechfeld was a series of military engagements over the course of three days from 10–12 August 955 in which the German forces of King Otto I the Great annihilated a Hungarian army led by harka Bulcsú and the chieftains Lél and Súr. With this German victory, further invasions by the Magyars into Latin Europe were ended.


  • Holy Roman Empire
    962
    Holy Roman Empire

    Holy Roman Empire became eventually composed of four kingdoms

    Holy Roman Empire
    962

    The Holy Roman Empire became eventually composed of four kingdoms. The kingdoms were: Kingdom of Germany (part of the empire since 962), Kingdom of Italy (from 962 until 1648), Kingdom of Bohemia (since 1002 as the Duchy of Bohemia and raised to a kingdom in 1198), Kingdom of Burgundy (from 1032 to 1378).


  • Germany
    994
    Holy Roman Empire

    Series of regencies until age of majority

    Germany
    994

    Otto III (Otto's II son), came to the throne only three years old, and was subjected to a power struggle and series of regencies until his age of majority in 994. Up to that time, he had remained in Germany, while a deposed Duke, Crescentius II, ruled over Rome and part of Italy, ostensibly in his stead.


  • Europe
    2nd Millenium
    Martial arts

    Number of historical combat manuals have survived from the European Middle Ages

    Europe
    2nd Millenium

    A number of historical combat manuals have survived from the European Middle Ages. This includes such styles as sword and shield, two-handed sword fighting, and other types of melee weapons besides unarmed combat. Amongst these are transcriptions of Johannes Liechtenauer's mnemonic poem on the longsword dating back to the late fourteenth century.


  • Göttingen, Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    Tuesday Jul 13, 1024
    Holy Roman Empire

    Henry II Died

    Göttingen, Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    Tuesday Jul 13, 1024

    Henry II died in 1024 and Conrad II, first of the Salian Dynasty, was elected king only after some debate among dukes and nobles. This group eventually developed into the college of Electors.


  • Duchy of Swabia, Holy Roman Empire, Kingdom of Sicily, Kingdom of Jerusalem
    1079
    Holy Roman Empire

    Hohenstaufen

    Duchy of Swabia, Holy Roman Empire, Kingdom of Sicily, Kingdom of Jerusalem
    1079

    The Hohenstaufen, also called Staufer, was a noble dynasty of unclear origin that rose to rule the Duchy of Swabia from 1079 and to royal rule in the Holy Roman Empire during the Middle Ages from 1138 until 1254. The most prominent kings Frederick I (1155), Henry VI (1191) and Frederick II (1220) ascended the imperial throne and also ruled Italy and Burgundy. The non-contemporary name is derived from a family castle on the Hohenstaufen mountain at the northern fringes of the Swabian Jura near the town of Göppingen. Under Hohenstaufen reign the Holy Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent from 1155 to 1268.


  • (Present-Day in Germany)
    1096
    Crusades

    Rhineland massacres

    (Present-Day in Germany)
    1096

    Immediately after Urban's proclamation, the French priest Peter the Hermit led thousands of mostly poor Christians out of Europe in what became known as the People's Crusade. In transit through Germany, these Crusaders spawned German bands who massacred Jewish communities in what became known as the Rhineland massacres.


  • Europe
    12th Century
    Halloween

    Holy days of obligation

    Europe
    12th Century

    By the end of the 12th century they had become holy days of obligation across Europe and involved such traditions as ringing church bells for the souls in purgatory. In addition, "it was customary for criers dressed in black to parade the streets, ringing a bell of mournful sound and calling on all good Christians to remember the poor souls."


  • Worms, Germany
    Sep, 1122
    Holy Roman Empire

    Concordat of Worms

    Worms, Germany
    Sep, 1122

    Henry managed to defeat him but was subsequently confronted with more uprisings, renewed excommunication, and even the rebellion of his sons. After his death, his second son, Henry V, reached an agreement with the Pope and the bishops in the 1122 Concordat of Worms.


  • Utrecht, Germany
    Saturday May 23, 1125
    Holy Roman Empire

    Salian dynasty ended

    Utrecht, Germany
    Saturday May 23, 1125

    When the Salian dynasty ended with Henry V's death in 1125, the princes chose not to elect the next of kin, but rather Lothair, the moderately powerful but already old Duke of Saxony. When he died in 1137, the princes again aimed to check royal power; accordingly they did not elect Lothair's favoured heir, his son-in-law Henry the Proud of the Welf family, but Conrad III of the Hohenstaufen family, the grandson of Emperor Henry IV and thus a nephew of Emperor Henry V. This led to over a century of strife between the two houses. Conrad ousted the Welfs from their possessions, but after his death in 1152, his nephew Frederick I "Barbarossa" succeeded him and made peace with the Welfs, restoring his cousin Henry the Lion to his – albeit diminished – possessions.


  • (Present-Day in Germany)
    1147
    Crusades

    Wendish Crusade

    (Present-Day in Germany)
    1147

    In the north, some Germans were reluctant to fight in the Holy Land while the pagan Wends were a more immediate problem. The resulting Wendish Crusade of 1147 was partially successful but failed to convert the pagans to Christianity.


  • (Then Germany)
    1157
    Holy Roman Empire

    Roman Empire

    (Then Germany)
    1157

    Before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. The term sacrum ("holy", in the sense of "consecrated") in connection with the medieval Roman Empire was used beginning in 1157 under Frederick I Barbarossa ("Holy Empire"): the term was added to reflect Frederick's ambition to dominate Italy and the Papacy. The form "Holy Roman Empire" is attested from 1254 onward.


  • Holy Roman Empire
    Monday Apr 15, 1191
    Holy Roman Empire

    Henry VI

    Holy Roman Empire
    Monday Apr 15, 1191

    Under the son and successor of Frederick Barbarossa, Henry VI, the Hohenstaufen dynasty reached its apex. Henry added the Norman kingdom of Sicily to his domains, held English king Richard the Lionheart captive, and aimed to establish a hereditary monarchy when he died in 1197.


  • Frankfurt, Germany
    1200
    Hot Dog

    Frankfurter Würstchen

    Frankfurt, Germany
    1200

    The word "frankfurter" comes from Frankfurt, Germany, where pork sausages similar to hot dogs originated. These sausages, Frankfurter Würstchen, were known since the 13th century and given to the people on the event of imperial coronations, starting with the coronation of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor as King. "Wiener" refers to Vienna, Austria (German: Wien), home to a sausage made of a mixture of pork and beef.


  • Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    Sunday Apr 26, 1220
    Holy Roman Empire

    1220 Confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis

    Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    Sunday Apr 26, 1220

    Despite his imperial claims, Frederick's rule was a major turning point towards the disintegration of central rule in the Empire. While concentrated on establishing a modern, centralized state in Sicily, he was mostly absent from Germany and issued far-reaching privileges to Germany's secular and ecclesiastical princes: in the 1220 Confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis, Frederick gave up a number of regalia in favor of the bishops, among them tariffs, coining, and fortification.


  • Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    1232
    Holy Roman Empire

    The 1232 Statutum in favorem principum

    Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    1232

    The 1232 Statutum in favorem principum mostly extended these privileges to secular territories. Although many of these privileges had existed earlier, they were now granted globally, and once and for all, to allow the German princes to maintain order north of the Alps while Frederick II concentrated on Italy. The 1232 document marked the first time that the German dukes were called domini terræ, owners of their lands, a remarkable change in terminology as well.


  • Holy Roman Empire
    1250
    Holy Roman Empire

    Interregnum

    Holy Roman Empire
    1250

    Conrad IV's death was followed by the Interregnum, during which no king could achieve universal recognition, allowing the princes to consolidate their holdings and become even more independent rulers.


  • Speyer, Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    Sunday Jul 15, 1291
    Holy Roman Empire

    Rudolf's death (Rudolf I of Germany)

    Speyer, Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    Sunday Jul 15, 1291

    After Rudolf's death in 1291, Adolf and Albert were two further weak kings who were never crowned emperor. Adolf of Germany (c. 1255 – 2 July 1298) was Count of Nassau from about 1276 and elected King of Germany (King of the Romans) from 1292 until his deposition by the prince-electors in 1298. He was never crowned by the Pope, which would have secured him the title of Holy Roman Emperor. He was the first physically and mentally healthy ruler of the Holy Roman Empire ever to be deposed without a papal excommunication. Adolf died shortly afterwards in the Battle of Göllheim fighting against his successor Albert of Habsburg. Albert I of Germany (July 1255 – 1 May 1308), the eldest son of King Rudolf I of Germany and his first wife Gertrude of Hohenberg, was a Duke of Austria and Styria from 1282 and King of Germany from 1298 until his assassination.


  • Nuremberg and Metz, Holy Roman Empire
    Saturday Jan 10, 1356
    Holy Roman Empire

    Golden Bull of 1356

    Nuremberg and Metz, Holy Roman Empire
    Saturday Jan 10, 1356

    The difficulties in electing the king eventually led to the emergence of a fixed college of prince-electors (Kurfürsten), whose composition and procedures were set forth in the Golden Bull of 1356, which remained valid until 1806. This development probably best symbolizes the emerging duality between emperor and realm (Kaiser und Reich), which were no longer considered identical. The Golden Bull also set forth the system for election of the Holy Roman Emperor. The emperor now was to be elected by a majority rather than by consent of all seven electors. For electors the title became hereditary, and they were given the right to mint coins and to exercise jurisdiction. Also it was recommended that their sons learn the imperial languages – German, Latin, Italian, and Czech.


  • Holy Roman Empire
    Saturday Jan 16, 1362
    Disasters with highest death tolls

    St. Marcellus Flood

    Holy Roman Empire
    Saturday Jan 16, 1362

    Saint Marcellus' flood or Grote Mandrenke was a massive southwesterly Atlantic gale (also known as a European windstorm) which swept across the British Isles, the Netherlands, northern Germany, and Denmark (including Schleswig/Southern Jutland) around 16 January 1362, causing at minimum 25,000 deaths.


  • Holy Roman Empire
    15th Century
    Holy Roman Empire

    Local wars

    Holy Roman Empire
    15th Century

    The "constitution" of the Empire still remained largely unsettled at the beginning of the 15th century. Although some procedures and institutions had been fixed, for example by the Golden Bull of 1356, the rules of how the king, the electors, and the other dukes should cooperate in the Empire much depended on the personality of the respective king. It therefore proved somewhat damaging that Sigismund of Luxemburg (king 1410, emperor 1433–1437) and Frederick III of Habsburg (king 1440, emperor 1452–1493) neglected the old core lands of the empire and mostly resided in their own lands. Without the presence of the king, the old institution of the Hoftag, the assembly of the realm's leading men, deteriorated. The Imperial Diet as a legislative organ of the Empire did not exist at that time. The dukes often conducted feuds against each other – feuds that, more often than not, escalated into local wars.


  • Worms, Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    1495
    Holy Roman Empire

    Diet of Worms 1495

    Worms, Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    1495

    For the first time, the assembly of the electors and other dukes was now called the Imperial Diet (German Reichstag) (to be joined by the Imperial Free Cities later). While Frederick refused, his more conciliatory son (Maximilian I) finally convened the Diet at Worms in 1495, after his father's death in 1493.


  • (Then Germany)
    1512
    Holy Roman Empire

    Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation

    (Then Germany)
    1512

    In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation", a form first used in a document in 1474. The new title was adopted partly because the Empire had lost most of its territories in Italy and Burgundy (the Kingdom of Arles) to the south and west by the late 15th century, but also to emphasize the new importance of the German Imperial Estates in ruling the Empire due to the Imperial Reform. By the end of the 18th century, the term "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" had fallen out of official use. Contradicting the traditional view concerning that designation, Hermann Weisert has argued in a study on imperial titulature that, despite the claims of many textbooks, the name "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" never had an official status and points out that documents were thirty times as likely to omit the national suffix as include it.


  • Germany
    1512
    Holy Roman Empire

    Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation

    Germany
    1512

    Here, the king and the dukes agreed on four bills, commonly referred to as the Reichsreform (Imperial Reform): a set of legal acts to give the disintegrating Empire some structure. For example, this act produced the Imperial Circle Estates and the Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court), institutions that would – to a degree – persist until the end of the Empire in 1806. It took a few more decades for the new regulation to gain universal acceptance and for the new court to begin functioning effectively; the Imperial Circles were finalized in 1512. The King also made sure that his own court, the Reichshofrat, continued to operate in parallel to the Reichskammergericht. Also in 1512, the Empire received its new title, the Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation ("Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation").


  • Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    1517
    Holy Roman Empire

    Martin Luther launched what later be known as the Reformation

    Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    1517

    In addition to conflicts between his Spanish and German inheritances, conflicts of religion would be another source of tension during the reign of Charles V. Before Charles's reign in the Holy Roman Empire began, in 1517, Martin Luther launched what would later be known as the Reformation. At this time, many local dukes saw it as a chance to oppose the hegemony of Emperor Charles V. The empire then became fatally divided along religious lines, with the north, the east, and many of the major cities – Strasbourg, Frankfurt, and Nuremberg – becoming Protestant while the southern and western regions largely remained Catholic.


  • Heidelberg, Germany
    1550s
    Libraries

    Bibliotheca Palatina

    Heidelberg, Germany
    1550s

    This trend soon spread outside of Italy, for example Louis III, Elector Palatine founded the Bibliotheca Palatina of Heidelberg.


  • Augsburg, Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    Sep, 1555
    Holy Roman Empire

    Peace of Augsburg

    Augsburg, Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    Sep, 1555

    The Peace of Augsburg ended the war in Germany and accepted the existence of Protestantism in the form of Lutheranism, while Calvinism was still not recognized. Anabaptist, Arminian and other minor Protestant communities were also forbidden.


  • Holy Roman Empire
    Saturday Jul 25, 1564
    Holy Roman Empire

    Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor

    Holy Roman Empire
    Saturday Jul 25, 1564

    After Ferdinand I died in 1564, his son Maximilian II became Emperor, and like his father accepted the existence of Protestantism and the need for occasional compromise with it.


  • Frankfurt, Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    Tuesday Jun 26, 1612
    Holy Roman Empire

    Matthias became Holy Roman Emperor

    Frankfurt, Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    Tuesday Jun 26, 1612

    Matthias of Austria, a member of the House of Habsburg (February 24, 1557 - March 20, 1619) was Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria (1612 – 1619), king of Hungary (as Mátyás II) and Croatia (as Matija II) since 1608 and king of Bohemia (also as Matyáš II) since 1611. His personal motto was Concordia lumine maior ("Unity is stronger than light").


  • Central Europe
    1618
    Holy Roman Empire

    The Thirty Years' War

    Central Europe
    1618

    The Thirty Years' War was a war fought primarily in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648. One of the most destructive conflicts in human history, it resulted in eight million fatalities not only from military engagements but also from violence, famine, and plague. Casualties were overwhelmingly and disproportionately inhabitants of the Holy Roman Empire, most of the rest being battle deaths from various foreign armies. The deadly clashes ravaged Europe; 20 percent of the total population of Germany died during the conflict and there were losses up to 50 percent in a corridor between Pomerania and the Black Forest. In terms of proportional German casualties and destruction, it was surpassed only by the period of January to May 1945 during World War II. One of its enduring results was 19th-century Pan-Germanism, when it served as an example of the dangers of a divided Germany and became a key justification for the 1871 creation of the German Empire (although the German Empire excluded the German-speaking parts of the Austro-Hungarian Empire). When Bohemians rebelled against the Emperor, the immediate result was the series of conflicts known as the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), which devastated the Empire. Foreign powers, including France and Sweden, intervened in the conflict and strengthened those fighting Imperial power, but also seized considerable territory for themselves. The long conflict so bled the Empire that it never recovered its strength.


  • Osnabrück and Münster, Westphalia, Holy Roman Empire
    1648
    Holy Roman Empire

    The Peace of Westphalia

    Osnabrück and Münster, Westphalia, Holy Roman Empire
    1648

    The actual end of the empire came in several steps. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which ended the Thirty Years' War, gave the territories almost complete independence. Calvinism was now allowed, but Anabaptists, Arminians and other Protestant communities would still lack any support and continue to be persecuted well until the end of the Empire. The Swiss Confederation, which had already established quasi-independence in 1499, as well as the Northern Netherlands, left the Empire. The Habsburg Emperors focused on consolidating their own estates in Austria and elsewhere. The treaties of Westphalia brought to an end a calamitous period of European history which caused the deaths of approximately eight million people. Scholars have identified Westphalia as the beginning of the modern international system, based on the concept of Westphalian sovereignty, though this interpretation has been challenged.


  • Europe
    1648
    Libraries

    Thirty Years War

    Europe
    1648

    But this golden age was not just some prosaic period of great expansion to the number and accessibility of the libraries of Europe; it was also a period of great conflict. The Reformation did not just inspire a redistribution of power but also a redistribution of wealth and knowledge. While the Thirty Years War (1618–1648) decimated the population of Europe (from 21 million at the beginning of the conflict to 13 million by the end) it also aided in the redistribution of this wealth and knowledge.


  • Berlin, Germany
    1661
    Libraries

    Prussian State Library

    Berlin, Germany
    1661

    The Prussian State Library was founded in Berlin.


  • Eisenach, Germany
    Saturday Mar 31, 1685
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Birth

    Eisenach, Germany
    Saturday Mar 31, 1685

    Bach was born in 1685 in Eisenach, in the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach, into an extensive musical family. His father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father probably taught him to play the violin and harpsichord, and his brother Johann Christoph Bach taught him the clavichord and exposed him to much of the contemporary music.


  • Eisenach, Germany
    Saturday May 1, 1694
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Mother's Death

    Eisenach, Germany
    Saturday May 1, 1694

    Bach's mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later.


  • Ohrdruf, Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (Present Day Germany)
    1695
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach moved in with his eldest brother

    Ohrdruf, Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (Present Day Germany)
    1695

    The 10-year-old Bach moved in with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach (1671–1721), the organist at St. Michael's Church in Ohrdruf, Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. There he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brother's, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private, and blank ledger paper of that type was costly.


  • Lüneburg, Germany
    Saturday Apr 3, 1700
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Enrolled in the prestigious St. Michael's School in Lüneburg

    Lüneburg, Germany
    Saturday Apr 3, 1700

    By 3 April 1700, Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann—who was two years Bach's elder—were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michael's School in Lüneburg, some two weeks' travel north of Ohrdruf.


  • Coburg, Germany
    18th Century
    Hot Dog

    Frankfurter

    Coburg, Germany
    18th Century

    Johann Georg Lahner, an 18th/19th century butcher from the Franconian city of Coburg, is said to have brought the Frankfurter Würstchen to Vienna, where he added beef to the mixture and simply called it Frankfurter.


  • St. John's Church, Lüneburg, Germany
    1700s
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach had access to St. John's Church

    St. John's Church, Lüneburg, Germany
    1700s

    While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. John's Church and possibly used the church's famous organ from 1553, since it was played by his organ teacher Georg Böhm.


  • Weimar, Germany
    Jan, 1703
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach was appointed court musician in the chapel of Duke Johann Ernst III

    Weimar, Germany
    Jan, 1703

    In January 1703, shortly after graduating from St. Michael's and being turned down for the post of organist at Sangerhausen, Bach was appointed court musician in the chapel of Duke Johann Ernst III in Weimar.


  • Weimar, Germany
    Aug, 1703
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach became the organist at the New Church

    Weimar, Germany
    Aug, 1703

    In August 1703, he became the organist at the New Church, with light duties, a relatively generous salary, and a new organ tuned in a temperament that allowed music written in a wider range of keys to be played.


  • Lübeck, Germany
    1705
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach was absent for around four months

    Lübeck, Germany
    1705

    Despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir. He called one of them a "Zippel Fagottist" (weenie bassoon player). Late one evening this student, named Geyersbach, went after Bach with a stick. Bach filed a complaint against Geyersbach with the authorities. They acquitted Geyersbach with a minor reprimand and ordered Bach to be more moderate regarding the musical qualities he expected from his students. Some months later Bach upset his employer by a prolonged absence from Arnstadt: after obtaining leave for four weeks, he was absent for around four months in 1705–1706 to visit the organist and composer Dieterich Buxtehude in the northern city of Lübeck. The visit to Buxtehude involved a 450-kilometre (280 mi) journey each way, reportedly on foot.


  • Blasius Church, Mühlhausen, Germany
    1706
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach applied for a post as organist at the Blasius Church

    Blasius Church, Mühlhausen, Germany
    1706

    In 1706, Bach applied for a post as organist at the Blasius Church in Mühlhausen.


  • Mühlhausen, Germany
    1707
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Christ lag in Todes Banden, BWV 4

    Mühlhausen, Germany
    1707

    Bach's earliest cantatas date from his years in Arnstadt and Mühlhausen. The earliest one with a known date is Christ lag in Todes Banden, BWV 4, for Easter 1707, which is one of his chorale cantatas. Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit, BWV 106, also known as Actus Tragicus, is a funeral cantata from the Mühlhausen period. Around 20 church cantatas are extant from his later years in Weimar, for instance, Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis, BWV 21.


  • Mühlhausen, Germany
    Sunday Apr 24, 1707
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach had a cantata performed on Easter

    Mühlhausen, Germany
    Sunday Apr 24, 1707

    As part of his application, he had a cantata performed on Easter, 24 April 1707, likely an early version of his Christ lag in Todes Banden.


  • Dornheim, Germany
    Monday Oct 17, 1707
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Marriage

    Dornheim, Germany
    Monday Oct 17, 1707

    Bach married Maria Barbara Bach, his second cousin.


  • Germany
    1708
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Gott ist mein König

    Germany
    1708

    In 1708 Bach wrote Gott ist mein König, a festive cantata for the inauguration of the new council, which was published at the council's expense.


  • Weimar, Germany
    1708
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach left Mühlhausen returning to Weimar

    Weimar, Germany
    1708

    Bach left Mühlhausen in 1708, returning to Weimar this time as organist and from 1714 Konzertmeister (director of music) at the ducal court, where he had an opportunity to work with a large, well-funded contingent of professional musicians.


  • Weimar, Germany
    1708
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Little Organ Book

    Weimar, Germany
    1708

    Bach also started work on the Little Organ Book in Weimar, containing traditional Lutheran chorale tunes set in complex textures.


  • Weimar, Germany
    1708
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    First Child

    Weimar, Germany
    1708

    Later the same year, their first child, Catharina Dorothea, was born, and Maria Barbara's elder, unmarried sister joined them. Johann Sebastian and Maria Barbara had three more children, who however did not live to their first birthday, including twins born in 1713.


  • Weimar, Germany
    18th Century
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    The Well-Tempered Clavier

    Weimar, Germany
    18th Century

    In Weimar, Bach continued to play and compose for the organ and perform concert music with the duke's ensemble. He also began to write the preludes and fugues which were later assembled into his monumental work The Well-Tempered Clavier ("clavier" meaning clavichord or harpsichord), consisting of two books, each containing 24 preludes and fugues in every major and minor key.


  • Halle, Germany
    1713
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach was offered a post in Halle

    Halle, Germany
    1713

    In 1713, Bach was offered a post in Halle when he advised the authorities during a renovation by Christoph Cuntzius of the main organ in the west gallery of the Market Church of Our Dear Lady.


  • Weimar, Germany
    1714
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Konzertmeister

    Weimar, Germany
    1714

    In the spring of 1714, Bach was promoted to Konzertmeister, an honour that entailed performing a church cantata monthly in the castle church. The first three cantatas in the new series Bach composed in Weimar were Himmelskönig, sei willkommen, BWV 182, for Palm Sunday, which coincided with the Annunciation that year; Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12, for Jubilate Sunday; and Erschallet, ihr Lieder, erklinget, ihr Saiten! BWV 172 for Pentecost.


  • Weimar, Germany
    1717
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach eventually fell out of favor in Weimar

    Weimar, Germany
    1717

    In 1717, Bach eventually fell out of favor in Weimar and, according to a translation of the court secretary's report, was jailed for almost a month before being unfavorably dismissed: "On November 6, [1717], the quondam concertmaster and organist Bach was confined to the County Judge's place of detention for too stubbornly forcing the issue of his dismissal and finally on December 2 was freed from arrest with notice of his unfavourable discharge."


  • Köthen, Germany
    1717
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Kapellmeister

    Köthen, Germany
    1717

    Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen, hired Bach to serve as his Kapellmeister (director of music) in 1717. Prince Leopold, himself a musician, appreciated Bach's talents, paid him well and gave him considerable latitude in composing and performing. The prince was a Calvinist and did not use elaborate music in his worship; accordingly, most of Bach's work from this period was secular, including the orchestral suites, cello suites, sonatas and partitas for solo violin, and Brandenburg Concertos.


  • Köthen, Germany
    Jan, 1719
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Die Zeit, die Tag und Jahre macht, BWV 134a

    Köthen, Germany
    Jan, 1719

    Bach also composed secular cantatas for the court, such as Die Zeit, die Tag und Jahre macht, BWV 134a.


  • Halle, Germany
    1719
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Journey from Köthen to Halle

    Halle, Germany
    1719

    Despite being born in the same year and only about 130 kilometres (80 mi) apart, Bach and Handel never met. In 1719, Bach made the 35-kilometre (22 mi) journey from Köthen to Halle with the intention of meeting Handel; however, Handel had left the town. In 1730, Bach's oldest son, Wilhelm Friedemann, travelled to Halle to invite Handel to visit the Bach family in Leipzig, but the visit did not take place.


  • Köthen, Germany
    Wednesday Dec 3, 1721
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Anna Magdalena Wilcke

    Köthen, Germany
    Wednesday Dec 3, 1721

    The following year, Bach met Anna Magdalena Wilcke, a young, highly gifted soprano 16 years his junior, who performed at the court in Köthen; they married on 3 December 1721.


  • Leipzig, Germany
    Friday Jun 5, 1722
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Johann Kuhnau death

    Leipzig, Germany
    Friday Jun 5, 1722

    Johann Kuhnau had been Thomaskantor in Leipzig from 1701 until his death on 5 June 1722. Bach had visited Leipzig during Kuhnau's tenure: in 1714 he attended the service at the St. Thomas Church on the first Sunday of Advent, and in 1717 he had tested the organ of the Paulinerkirche. In 1716 Bach and Kuhnau had met on the occasion of the testing and inauguration of an organ in Halle.


  • St. Thomas Church, Leipzig, Germany
    1723
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Thomaskantor

    St. Thomas Church, Leipzig, Germany
    1723

    In 1723, Bach was appointed Thomaskantor, Cantor of the Thomasschule at the Thomaskirche (St. Thomas Church) in Leipzig, which provided music for four churches in the city: the Thomaskirche and Nikolaikirche (St. Nicholas Church) and to a lesser extent the Neue Kirche (New Church) and Peterskirche (St. Peter's Church).


  • Leipzig, Germany
    1723
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach's predecessor as cantor

    Leipzig, Germany
    1723

    Bach's predecessor as cantor, Johann Kuhnau, had also been music director for the Paulinerkirche, the church of Leipzig University. But when Bach was installed as cantor in 1723, he was put in charge only of music for festal (church holiday) services at the Paulinerkirche; his petition to also provide music for regular Sunday services there (for a corresponding salary increase) went all the way to the Elector but was denied.


  • Leipzig, Germany
    1723
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Magnificat

    Leipzig, Germany
    1723

    The first version of Bach's Magnificat dates from 1723, but the work is best known in its D major version of 1733.


  • St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig, Germany
    Sunday May 30, 1723
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Die Elenden sollen essen, BWV 75

    St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig, Germany
    Sunday May 30, 1723

    Bach usually led performances of his cantatas, most of which were composed within three years of his relocation to Leipzig. The first was Die Elenden sollen essen, BWV 75, performed in the Nikolaikirche on 30 May 1723, the first Sunday after Trinity. Bach collected his cantatas in annual cycles. Five are mentioned in obituaries, three are extant.


  • Leipzig, Germany
    1724
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    St John Passion

    Leipzig, Germany
    1724

    The St John Passion was the first Passion Bach composed during his tenure as Thomaskantor in Leipzig.


  • Germany
    1724
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Trinity of 1724

    Germany
    1724

    Of the more than 300 cantatas which Bach composed in Leipzig, over 100 have been lost to posterity. Most of these works expound on the Gospel readings prescribed for every Sunday and feast day in the Lutheran year. Bach started a second annual cycle the first Sunday after Trinity of 1724 and composed only chorale cantatas, each based on a single church hymn. These include O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort, BWV 20, Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV 140, Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 62, and Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern, BWV 1.


  • Leipzig, Germany
    1725
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach "lost interest" in working even for festal services at the Paulinerkirche

    Leipzig, Germany
    1725

    After this, in 1725, Bach "lost interest" in working even for festal services at the Paulinerkirche and appeared there only on "special occasions".


  • Germany
    1727
    Cameras

    Johann Heinrich Schulze

    Germany
    1727

    Before the development of the photographic camera, it had been known for hundreds of years that some substances, such as silver salts, darkened when exposed to sunlight. In a series of experiments, published in 1727, the German scientist Johann Heinrich Schulze demonstrated that the darkening of the salts was due to light alone, and not influenced by heat or exposure to air.


  • Germany
    1727
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    St Matthew Passion

    Germany
    1727

    With its double choir and orchestra, the St Matthew Passion is one of Bach's most extended works.


  • Germany
    1733
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach's Missa of 1733

    Germany
    1733

    In 1733, Bach composed a Kyrie–Gloria Mass in B minor which he later incorporated in his Mass in B minor. He presented the manuscript to the Elector in an eventually successful bid to persuade the prince to give him the title of Court Composer.


  • Germany
    1735
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Clavier-Übung III

    Germany
    1735

    In 1735 Bach started to prepare his first publication of organ music, which was printed as the third Clavier-Übung in 1739.


  • Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    1740
    Holy Roman Empire

    The German dualism between Austria and Prussia dominated the empire's history after 1740

    Germany, Holy Roman Empire
    1740

    By the rise of Louis XIV, the Habsburgs were chiefly dependent on their hereditary lands to counter the rise of Prussia, some of whose territories lay inside the Empire. Throughout the 18th century, the Habsburgs were embroiled in various European conflicts, such as the War of the Spanish Succession, the War of the Polish Succession, and the War of the Austrian Succession. The German dualism between Austria and Prussia dominated the empire's history after 1740.


  • Germany
    1740
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach copied, transcribed, expanded or programmed music in an older polyphonic style

    Germany
    1740

    From 1740 to 1748 Bach copied, transcribed, expanded or programmed music in an older polyphonic style (stile antico) by, among others, Palestrina (BNB I/P/2), Kerll (BWV 241), Torri (BWV Anh. 30), Bassani (BWV 1081), Gasparini (Missa Canonica) and Caldara (BWV 1082).


  • Germany
    1740s
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    The Art of Fugue

    Germany
    1740s

    Two large-scale compositions occupied a central place in Bach's last years. From around 1742 he wrote and revised the various canons and fugues of The Art of Fugue, which he continued to prepare for publication until shortly before his death.


  • Leipzig, Germany
    1740s
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Gloria in excelsis Deo, BWV 191

    Leipzig, Germany
    1740s

    After extracting a cantata, BWV 191, from his 1733 Kyrie-Gloria Mass for the Dresden court in the mid 1740s, Bach expanded that setting into his Mass in B minor in the last years of his life. Although the complete mass was never performed during the composer's lifetime, it is considered to be among the greatest choral works in history.


  • Germany
    1746
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach was preparing to enter Lorenz Christoph Mizler's Society of Musical Sciences

    Germany
    1746

    In 1746 Bach was preparing to enter Lorenz Christoph Mizler's Society of Musical Sciences. In order to be admitted Bach had to submit a composition, for which he chose his Canonic Variations on "Vom Himmel hoch da komm' ich her", and a portrait, which was painted by Elias Gottlob Haussmann and featured Bach's Canon triplex á 6 Voc.


  • Potsdam, Prussia (Present Day Germany)
    May, 1747
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach visited the court of King Frederick II of Prussia

    Potsdam, Prussia (Present Day Germany)
    May, 1747

    In May 1747, Bach visited the court of King Frederick II of Prussia in Potsdam. The king played a theme for Bach and challenged him to improvise a fugue based on his theme. Bach obliged, playing a three-part fugue on one of Frederick's fortepianos, which was a new type of instrument at the time. Upon his return to Leipzig he composed a set of fugues and canons, and a trio sonata, based on the Thema Regium (theme of the king).


  • Germany
    Jan, 1749
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach's daughter marriage

    Germany
    Jan, 1749

    In January 1749, Bach's daughter Elisabeth Juliane Friederica married his pupil Johann Christoph Altnickol. Bach's health was, however, declining.


  • Leipzig, Germany
    Monday Jun 2, 1749
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Heinrich von Brühl wrote to one of the Leipzig burgomasters to request that his music director, Johann Gottlob Harrer, fill the Thomaskantor and Director musics posts

    Leipzig, Germany
    Monday Jun 2, 1749

    On 2 June, Heinrich von Brühl wrote to one of the Leipzig burgomasters to request that his music director, Johann Gottlob Harrer, fill the Thomaskantor and Director musics posts "upon the eventual ... decease of Mr. Bach".


  • Germany
    Mar, 1750
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach underwent eye surgery

    Germany
    Mar, 1750

    Becoming blind, Bach underwent eye surgery, in March 1750 and again in April, by the British eye surgeon John Taylor, a man widely understood today as a charlatan and believed to have blinded hundreds of people.


  • Leipzig, Germany
    Tuesday Jul 28, 1750
    Johann Sebastian Bach

    Bach Death

    Leipzig, Germany
    Tuesday Jul 28, 1750

    Bach died on 28 July 1750 from complications due to the unsuccessful treatment.


  • Munich, Bavaria, Germany
    Jul, 1762
    Mozart

    The two prodigies in Munich

    Munich, Bavaria, Germany
    Jul, 1762

    While Wolfgang was young, his family made several European journeys in which he and Nannerl performed as child prodigies. These began with an exhibition in 1762 at the court of Prince-elector Maximilian III of Bavaria in Munich.


  • Wasserburg am Inn, Bavaria, Germany
    1763
    Mozart

    Playing organ for the first time

    Wasserburg am Inn, Bavaria, Germany
    1763

    The family set out in the early summer of 1763 and visited Wasserburg on their way to Munich, from where Leopold wrote that Mozart had started to play the organ, as soon as Leopold had explained briefly what they did, Mozart was off playing as if he had been practicing for several months.


  • Bonn, Germany
    Dec, 1770
    Beethoven

    Origin and Birth

    Bonn, Germany
    Dec, 1770

    Beethoven was the grandson of Ludwig van Beethoven (1712–1773), a musician from the town of Mechelen in the Austrian Duchy of Brabant (in what is now the Flemish region of Belgium) who had moved to Bonn at the age of 21. Ludwig was employed as a bass singer at the court of Clemens August, Archbishop-Elector of Cologne, eventually rising to become, in 1761, Kapellmeister (music director) and hence a pre-eminent musician in Bonn. The portrait he commissioned of himself towards the end of his life remained displayed in his grandson's rooms as a talisman of his musical heritage. Ludwig had one son, Johann (1740–1792), who worked as a tenor in the same musical establishment and gave keyboard and violin lessons to supplement his income. Johann married Maria Magdalena Keverich in 1767; she was the daughter of Heinrich Keverich (1701–1751), who had been the head chef at the court of the Archbishopric of Trier. Beethoven was born of this marriage in Bonn. There is no authentic record of the date of his birth; however, the registry of his baptism, in the Catholic Parish of St. Remigius on 17 December 1770, survives, and the custom in the region at the time was to carry out baptism within 24 hours of birth. There is a consensus, (with which Beethoven himself agreed) that his birth date was 16 December, but no documentary proof of this.


  • Munich, Germany
    Friday Jan 13, 1775
    Mozart

    Lafinta giardiniera

    Munich, Germany
    Friday Jan 13, 1775

    The resulting work, when a commission came from Munich that year, Lafinta giardiniera (an opera buffa) is yards more accomplished than his former comic work, Lafinta semplice. Naturally it also offered a justification for Mozart to leave Salzburg. On 6 December the same year, he and his father arrived in Munich to attend the rehearsals of the new opera.


  • Augsburg, Germany
    Oct, 1777
    Mozart

    Mozart's meets Maria Anna

    Augsburg, Germany
    Oct, 1777

    Mozart met his distant cousin, Maria Anna Thekia, whom he affectionately nicknamed "Bäsle," while in Augsburg. She seems to have shared the sense of humour with Mozart and they soon became good friends, maybe even lovers. His letters to her indicate an transformation in him that shows he was more like every other 21-year-old in that respect. He finally ripped himself away from Basle and moved on to Mannheim with his mother.


  • Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
    Thursday Oct 30, 1777
    Mozart

    Going to Mannheim and meeting the Webers

    Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
    Thursday Oct 30, 1777

    He and his mother moved on to Mannheim, became pleasant with the Mannheim musicians, did some teaching and playing, accepted and partially fulfilled a flute music commission from a German surgeon, and fell in love with Aloysia Weber, a soprano, the second of four daughters of a music copyist. He has also written numerous sonatas for piano, some with violin. He put a scheme to his father for traveling with the naive and reckless Webers to Italy, and met with an angry response from Leopald.


  • Cuvilliés Theatre, Munich, Germany
    Thursday Jan 29, 1778
    Mozart

    Idomeneo Premier

    Cuvilliés Theatre, Munich, Germany
    Thursday Jan 29, 1778

    Idomeneo's first dress rehearsal was coinciding with the 25th birthday of Mozart. His father Leopold had arrived with Nannerl in Munich sometime between then and the premiere. The first night-the only fair night-went really well. Mozart had achieved the popularity he had wished for, but for another 5 years the opera would not be performed again.


  • Bonn, Germany
    Mar, 1778
    Beethoven

    First Public Performance

    Bonn, Germany
    Mar, 1778

    Beethoven's first music teacher was his father. He later had other local teachers: the court organist Gilles van den Eeden (d. 1782), Tobias Friedrich Pfeiffer (a family friend, who provided keyboard tuition), and Franz Rovantini (a relative, who instructed him in playing the violin and viola). From the outset his tuition regime, which began in his fifth year, was harsh and intensive, often reducing him to tears; with the involvement of the insomniac Pfeiffer, there were irregular late-night sessions with the young Beethoven being dragged from his bed to the keyboard. His musical talent was obvious at a young age. Johann, aware of Leopold Mozart's successes in this area (with his son Wolfgang and daughter Nannerl), attempted to promote his son as a child prodigy, claiming that Beethoven was seven on the posters for his first public performance in March 1778.


  • Germany
    1780
    Unification of Germany

    Germanized Jews remained another vulnerable population

    Germany
    1780

    Germanized Jews remained another vulnerable population in the new German nation-state. Since 1780, after emancipation by the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II, Jews in the former Habsburg territories had enjoyed considerable economic and legal privileges.


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