History of Mamluks

Historians agree that an entrenched military class such as the Mamluks appeared to develop in Islamic societies beginning with the 9th-century Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad.

Until the 1990s, it was widely believed that the earliest Mamluks were known as Ghilman or Ghulam. and were bought by the Abbasid caliphs, especially al-Mu'tasim (833–842).

Mamluk regiments constituted the backbone of Egypt's military under Ayyubid rule in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, beginning with Sultan Saladin (r. 1174–1193) who replaced the Fatimids' black African infantry with mamluks.

In 1206, the Mamluk commander of the Muslim forces in the Indian subcontinent, Qutb al-Din Aibak, proclaimed himself Sultan, creating the Mamluk Sultanate in Delhi which lasted until 1290.

Sultan as-Salih Ayyub (r. 1240–1249), the last of the Ayyubid sultans, had acquired some 1,000 mamluks (some of them free-born) from Syria, Egypt, and the Arabian Peninsula.

As-Salih became sultan of Egypt in 1240, and, upon his accession to the Ayyubid throne, he manumitted and promoted large numbers of his original and newly recruited Mamluks on the condition that they remain in his service.

Tensions between As-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub and his mamluks came to a head later in 1249 when Louis IX of France's forces captured Damietta in their bid to conquer Egypt during the Seventh Crusade.

Louis IX of France's forces captured Damietta in their bid to conquer Egypt during the Seventh Crusade.

Prior to Turanshah's arrival at the front facing the French, the Bahriyyah, a junior regiment of the Salihiyyah commanded by Baibars al-Buduqdari, defeated the Crusaders at the Battle of al-Mansurah on 11 February 1250.

On 27 February, Turanshah, as new sultan, arrived in Egypt from Hasankeyf (Turkish for "rock fortress"), where he had been Emir (Arabic for "Prince") of Hisn Kayfa (Arabic for "rock fortress").

The Egyptians followed them into the Battle of Fariskur where the Egyptians utterly destroyed the Crusaders on 6 April. King Louis IX and a few of his surviving nobles surrendered and were taken as prisoners, effectively ending the Seventh Crusade.

On 2 May 1250, a group of disgruntled Salihi officers had Turanshah assassinated at his camp in Fariskur.

Izz al-Din Aybak was the first of the Mamluk sultans of Egypt in the Turkic Bahri line.

Under Saladin and the Ayyubids of Egypt, the power of the Mamluks increased and they claimed the sultanate in 1250. Regimes based on Mamluk power thrived in such Ottoman provinces as the Levant and Egypt until the 19th century.

Shajar al-Durr took control with Mamluk support and launched a counterattack against the French. Shajar married the Mamluk commander, Aybak.

Many Mamluks were appointed or promoted to high positions throughout the empire, including army command. At first, their status was non-hereditary. Sons of Mamluks were prevented from following their father's role in life.

The Bahri dynasty or Bahriyya Mamluks was a Mamluk dynasty of mostly Cuman-Kipchak Turkic origin that ruled the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate from 1250 to 1382.

The Bahri dynasty or Bahriyya Mamluks was a Mamluk dynasty of mostly Cuman-Kipchak Turkic origin that ruled the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate from 1250 to 1382. They followed the Ayyubid dynasty, and were succeeded by a second Mamluk dynasty, the Burji dynasty.

In 1254, Aybak had his Mu'izzi mamluks assassinate Aktay in the Citadel of Cairo.

In 1256, he dispatched a Bahri-led expedition to Egypt, but no battle occurred when Aybak met an-Nasir Yusuf's army.

Aybak was assassinated on 10 April 1257, possibly on the orders of Shajar al-Durr, who was assassinated a week later. Their deaths left a relative power vacuum in Egypt, with Aybak's teenage son, al-Mansur Ali, as heir to the sultanate.

Al-Mansur Ali was the second of the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt in the Turkic, or Bahri, line. Some historians, however, consider Shajar al-Durr as the first of the Mamluk Sultans.

Saif ad-Din Qutuz, was a military leader and the third of the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt in the Turkic line. He reigned as Sultan for less than a year, from 1259 until his assassination in 1260.

After taking Damascus, Hulagu demanded that Qutuz surrender Egypt. Qutuz had Hulagu's envoys killed and, with Baibars' help, mobilized his troops.

Battle was fought between the Bahri Mamluks of Egypt and the Mongol Empire on 3 September 1260. The battle ended in a Mongol rout and Kitbuqa's capture and execution. Afterward, the Mamluks proceeded to recapture Damascus and the other Syrian cities taken by the Mongols.

Al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baibars al-Bunduqdari was the fourth Mamluk sultan of Egypt in the Bahri dynasty, succeeding Qutuz. He was one of the commanders of the Egyptian forces that inflicted a defeat on the Seventh Crusade of King Louis IX of France.

Baibars' troops attacked Acre in 1263.

In 1265, the Mamluks launched an invasion of northern Makuria, and forced the Nubian king to become a vassal of the Mamluks.

Baibars launched expeditions against the Crusader fortresses throughout Syria, capturing Arsuf in 1265.

Baibars' troops attacked took Antioch in 1268.

Al-Said Barakah was a Mamluk Sultan who ruled from 1277 to 1279 after the death of his father Baibars. His mother was a daughter of Barka Khan, a former Khwarazmian amir.

In 1277, Baibars launched an expedition against the Ilkhanids, routing them in Elbistan in Anatolia, before ultimately withdrawing to avoid overstretching their forces and risk being cut off from SyriaEarly Qalawuni period.

Badr al-Din Solamish was a Sultan of Egypt in 1279. Born in Cairo, he was the son of Baibars, a sultan of Kipchak origin.

Qalāwūn aṣ-Ṣāliḥ was the seventh Bahri Mamluk sultan; he ruled Egypt from 1279 to 1290.

The Ilkhanids took advantage of the disarray of Baibars' succession by raiding Mamluk Syria, before launching a massive offensive against Syria in the autumn of 1281.

Al-Ashraf Salāh ad-Dīn Khalil ibn Qalawūn was the eighth Mamluk sultan between November 1290 until his assassination in December 1293.

Al-Malik an-Nasir Nasir ad-Din Muhammad ibn Qalawun was the ninth Bahri Mamluk sultan of Egypt.

Al-Malik al-Adil Zayn-ad-Din Kitbugha Ben Abd-Allah al-Mansuri was the 10th Mamluk sultan of Egypt from December 1294 to November 1296.

Lachin, full royal name al-Malik al-Mansour Hossam ad-Din Lachin al-Mansuri was a Mamluk sultan of Egypt from 1296 to 1299.

There were several instances of Egyptian Muslim protests against the wealth of Coptic Christians and their employment with the state. In 1301, the government ordered the closure of all churches. Coptic bureaucrats would often be restored to their positions after the moment of tension passed.

Baibars al-Jashankir , also known as Abu al-Fath , was the 12th Mamluk Sultan of Mamluk Egypt in 1309–1310.

Al-Malik al-Mansur Sayf ad-Din Abu Bakr, better known as al-Mansur Abu Bakr was the Bahri Mamluk sultan in 1341. He became sultan, the first of several sons of an-Nasir Muhammad to accede to the throne. However, his reign was short-lived.

Al-Ashraf Ala'a ad-Din Kujuk ibn Muhammad ibn Qalawun was the Mamluk sultan from August 1341 to January 1342.

An-Nasir Shihab ad-Din Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Qalawun, better known as an-Nasir Ahmad, was the Bahri Mamluk sultan of Egypt, ruling from January to June 1342.

As-Salih Imad ad-Din Abu'l Fida Isma'il, better known as as-Salih Isma'il, was the Bahri Mamluk sultan of Egypt between June 1342 and August 1345. He was the fourth son of an-Nasir Muhammad to succeed the latter as sultan.

Al-Kamil Sayf ad-Din Sha'ban ibn Muhammad ibn Qalawun, better known as al-Kamil Sha'ban, was the Mamluk sultan of Egypt between August 1345 and January 1346. He was the fifth son of an-Nasir Muhammad.

Al-Muzaffar Sayf ad-Din Hajji ibn Muhammad ibn Qalawun, better known as al-Muzaffar Hajji, was the Bahri Mamluk sultan of Egypt. He was also the sixth son of an-Nasir Muhammad.

An-Nasir Badr ad-Din Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn Qalawun was the Mamluk sultan of Egypt, and the seventh son of an-Nasir Muhammad to hold office, reigning twice in 1347–1351 and 1354–1361.

As-Salih Salah ad-Din Salih ibn Muhammad ibn Qalawun, better known as as-Salih Salih, was the Mamluk sultan in 1351–1354. He was the eighth son of Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad.

Al-Mansur Salah ad-Din Muhammad ibn Hajji ibn Muhammad ibn Qalawun (1347/48–1398), better known as al-Mansur Muhammad, was the Mamluk sultan in 1361–1363.

Al-Ashraf Zayn ad-Din Abu al-Ma'ali Sha'ban ibn Husayn ibn Muhammad ibn Qalawun, better known as al-Ashraf Sha'ban or Sha'ban II, was a Mamluk sultan of the Bahri dynasty in 1363–1377. He was a grandson of Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad. He had two sons who succeeded him: al-Mansur Ali and as-Salih Hajji.

The Mamluks brought about a similar decline of the Armenian Orthodox Church after their capture of the Armenian Cilician Kingdom in 1374.

Al-Mansur Ala' ad-Din Ali ibn Sha'ban ibn Husayn ibn Muhammad ibn Qalawun (1368 – 19 May 1381), better known as al-Mansur Ali II, was the Mamluk sultan reigning in 1377–1381.

Al-Salih Hajji , also Haji II, was a Mamluk ruler, and the last ruler of the Bahri dynasty in 1382. He briefly ruled again in 1389.

Al-Malik Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Barquq was born in Circassia. He was the first Sultan of the Mamluk Burji dynasty of Egypt. Barquq was of Circassian origin.

In 1387, the Mamluks were able to force the Anatolian entity in Sivas to become a Mamluk vassal state.

Al-Nasir Faraj or Nasir-ad-Din Faraj also Faraj ibn Barquq was born in 1386 and succeeded his father Sayf-ad-Din Barquq as the second Sultan of the Burji dynasty of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt in July 1399.

Egypt was controlled by dynastic rulers, notably the Ikhshidids, Fatimids, and Ayyubids. thousands of Mamluk servants and guards continued to be used and even took high offices. Eventually, a Mamluk rose to become sultan.

Izz ad-Din Abd al-Aziz was the younger brother of An-Nasir Faraj and the son of Barquq. He was briefly a Mamluk sultan of Egypt in 1405.

Al-Musta'in Billah was the tenth "shadow" caliph of Cairo, reigning under the tutelage of the Mamluk sultans from 1406 to 1414. He was the only Cairo-based caliph to hold political power as Sultan of Egypt.

The Mamluk sultan an-Nasir Faraj regained control of Syria. Frequently facing rebellions by local emirs, he was forced to abdicate in 1412.

Al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh was a Mamluk sultan of Egypt from 6 November 1412 to 13 January 1421.

Al-Muzaffar Ahmad was the son of Shaykh al-Mahmudi, and a Mamluk sultan of Egypt from 13 January to 29 August 1421.

Sayf ad-Din Tatar was a Mamluk sultan of Egypt from 29 August to 30 November 1421.

An-Nasir ad-Din Muhammad was the son of Sayf ad-Din Tatar, and a Mamluk sultan of Egypt from 30 November 1421 to 1 April 1422.

Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Dīn Bārsbay was the ninth Burji Mamluk sultan of Egypt from AD 1422 to 1438. He was Circassian by birth and a former slave of the first Burji Sultan, Barquq.

Al-Aziz Jamal ad-Din Yusuf was the son of Barsbay, and a Mamluk sultan of Egypt from 7 June to 9 September 1438.

Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq was the Mamluk sultan of Egypt from 9 September 1438 to 1 February 1453.

Al-Malik al-Mansur Fakhr ad-Din Uthman ibn Jàqmaq, more simply known as Al-Mansur Uthman was Sultan of Cairo's Mamluk Burji dynasty (1453).

Al-Malik al-Ashraf Sayf al-Din Abu an-Nasr Inal al-'Ala'i az-Zahiri an-Nasiri al-Ajrud was the 13th Burji Mamluk sultan of Egypt, ruling between 1453–1461.

Al-Mu'ayyad Shihab al-Din Ahmad was the son of Sayf ad-Din Inal, and a Mamluk sultan of Egypt from 26 February to 28 June 1461.

Al-Malik al-Ẓāhir Sayf al-Dīn Abū Saʿīd Khushqadam ibn ʿAbdallāh al-Nāṣirī l-Muʾayyadī was a Mamluk sultan of Egypt and Syria from 28 June 1461 to 9 October 1467. He was born in Cairo, Egypt.

Sayf ad-Din Bilbay or Yalbay was a Mamluk sultan of Egypt from 9 October to 4 December 1467.

Timurbugha was the seventeenth Burji Sultan of Mamluk Egypt, briefly ruling from late 1467 to early 1468 when he was deposed. He used the title of al-Malik al-Zāhir.

Sultan Abu Al-Nasr Sayf ad-Din Al-Ashraf Qaitbay was the eighteenth Burji Mamluk Sultan of Egypt from (1468–1496 C.E.).

An-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qaitbay was the son of Qaitbay, and a Mamluk sultan of Egypt from 7 August 1496 to 31 October 1498.

Abu Sa'id Qansuh, also Qansuh Al-Ashrafi, Qansuh I or Al-Zahir Qansuh, was the twenty third Mamluk Sultan of Egypt from the Burji dynasty.

Al-Ashraf Abu al-Nasir Janbalat was a Mamluk sultan of Egypt from 30 June 1500 to 25 January 1501.

Al-Adil Sayf ad-Din Tuman bay was the twenty fifth Mamluk Sultan of Egypt from the Burji dynasty. He ruled for about one hundred days in 1501.

Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri or Qansuh II al-Ghawri was the second-to-last of the Mamluk Sultans. One of the last and most powerful of the Burji dynasty, he reigned from 1501 to 1516.

In 1515, Selim began the war which led to the conquest of Egypt and its dependencies. Mamluk cavalry proved no match for the Ottoman artillery and Janissary infantry.

On 24 August 1516, at the Battle of Marj Dabiq, al-Ghawri was killed. Syria passed into Ottoman possession, and the Ottomans were welcomed in many places as deliverance from the Mamluks.

Al-Ashraf Abu Al-Nasr Tuman bay, better known as Tuman bay II, was the last Sultan of Egypt before the country's conquest by the Ottoman Turks in 1517.

On January 25, the Mamluk Sultanate collapsed.

Ottoman sultan Selim I captured Cairo on January 20, the center of power transferred then to Constantinople.

From 1747 to 1831 Iraq was ruled, with short intermissions, by Mamluk officers of Georgian origin.

Ali Bey al-Kabir was a Mamluk leader in Egypt. In 1768. Ali Bey Al-Kabir declared independence from the Ottomans.

The siege of Acre of 1799 was an unsuccessful French siege of the Ottoman city of Acre, As a result of the failed siege, Napoleon Bonaparte retreated two months later and withdrew to Egypt.

After the departure of French troops in 1801 the Mamluks continued their struggle for independence; this time against the Ottoman Empire and Great Britain.

On 1 March 1811, Muhammad Ali invited all of the leading Mamluks to his palace to celebrate the declaration of war against the Wahhabis in Arabia. Between 600 and 700 Mamluks paraded for this purpose in Cairo.